Great leaders are distinguished by an enlightened perspective on themselves and the world. To develop and further strengthen this perspective, leaders should be familiar with relevant philosophical concepts and apply them in their professional environment. This enhances their effectiveness and enables transformative change in business and society.

To mark the 300th anniversary of his birth, we begin our series on leadership, philosophy and human impact with Immanuel Kant, the great philosopher of the Enlightenment, and the relevance of his ideas for modern leaders. Kant’s humanistic philosophy, based on reason and moral duty, can help modern leaders provide guidance in times of rapid change and build trust in situations of uncertainty.

Who was Immanuel Kant?

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is considered one of the most influential philosophers of the Enlightenment and a central thinker of modern philosophy. He was born in Prussian Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) as fourth of nine children. His father was a saddler and his family lived in modest circumstances. His mother was deeply religious and her pietistic influence had a lasting effect on Immanuel. He believed that she planted the first seeds of goodness in him and opened his heart to the impressions of nature.

From the age of eight, Immanuel attended the private, strictly religious Collegium Fridericianum in Königsberg. Thanks to his keen intellect and his love of learning, he entered the Albertina, Königsberg University, at the age of 16. There he studied theology, mathematics and philosophy. After the death of his father in 1746, he had to interrupt his studies. In order to earn a living, he worked as a tutor. It was not until 1755 that he returned to the Albertina, obtained his doctorate and was licensed to teach as a private lecturer. In 1770, he took up a professorship for logic and metaphysics, which he held until 1796.

Initially, Kant was particularly interested in the natural sciences, perhaps an inheritance from his mother. He published his first major work, his dissertation, at the age of 22: “Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces.”¹. It dealt with a natural philosophical discussion of the physical concepts of motion, force and energy.

His later philosophy dealt with the question of how people can acquire knowledge, understand the world and act morally. With his works, Kant is regarded as a key figure in philosophy who significantly influenced subsequent thinkers such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Arthur Schopenhauer.

Immanuel Kant led a modest life characterized by routine and discipline. Although he never left his hometown, he was a great universal thinker who found answers to essential questions of humanity that have changed the way we see the world today.

What does Immanuel Kant stand for?

Immanuel Kant believed in the freedom of the will, the autonomy of the individual and the responsibility of each individual to act morally. His groundbreaking thinking developed from a synthesis of rationalist and empirical approaches.

He was particularly influenced by the empirical science of Isaac Newton and the philosophy of David Hume. Hume’s skepticism about the human capacity for knowledge motivated Kant to formulate an answer. This led to his critical philosophy, in which he attempted to determine the limits and possibilities of human knowledge.

Kant expressed his Enlightenment thinking in his essay “Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?” (1784)². In it, he advocated the idea that people do not passively perceive the world, but actively shape it through their own categories and principles. This essay was a call for the self-liberation of people from “immaturity” through knowledge and reason.

Kant’s philosophy stands in particular for the connection between reason and morality. His categorical imperative forms the ethical foundation of his moral philosophy. His principles aim to determine moral action through reason and universal validity, regardless of individual inclinations or external circumstances.

What are his most important works?

Kant’s most important works include his three “Critiques”, which are regarded as a turning point in the history of philosophy, as well as his “Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals”, with which he created the basis for modern ethics.

“Critique of Pure Reason” (1781)³:

Kant examined the possibilities and limits of human knowledge. He questioned how we gain knowledge and what role experience and reason play in this. He emphasized the possibility of “synthetic judgments a priori”, according to which new knowledge is possible without experience, as in mathematics and physics. He introduced the concept of the “transcendental” in order to analyze the conditions of the possibility of knowledge. And he suggests that it is not our knowledge that depends on the objects, but the objects that depend on our cognitive capacity. He also demonstrated the limits of pure reason by proving the impossibility of conclusively clarifying metaphysical questions (e.g. about God, freedom, immortality) through theoretical reason. His work thus laid the foundation for modern epistemology and continues to have a significant influence on philosophy today.

„Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals“ (1785)⁴:

This paved the way for Kant’s later works, in particular the “Critique of Practical Reason” and laid the foundation for his moral philosophy. He examined the principles that determine moral action and strove for an ethics based on pure reason, independent of empirical influences⁵ and therefore universally valid.

Central to this is Kant’s introduction of the “categorical imperative”, a principle that serves as a criterion for assessing the moral permissibility of actions. This principle demands that individual actions must be „universalizable“ in order to be morally valid. Kant distinguishes between “hypothetical imperatives”, which are linked to conditions, and the “categorical imperative”, which applies unconditionally. He formulated the categorical imperative in several variants that shed light on different aspects of the same moral principle:

• Formula of the general law: “Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a general law.”
• Formula of the law of nature: “Act as if the maxim of your action should become a general law of nature through your will.”
• Formula of the end in itself: “Act in such a way that you need humanity both in your person and in the person of everyone else at all times as an end, never merely as a means.”
• Formula of the general legislator: “Act according to maxims that consider themselves at the same time as general legislation through their will.”
• Formula of the realm of ends: “Act as if you were at all times a legislating member of the general realm of ends through your maxims.”

These various formulations aim to emphasize the universal validity of moral laws, respect for humanity as an end in itself and the autonomy of the will. One should only act according to rules that one would reasonably recommend to all people in similar situations and that set aside subjective inclinations in favor of objective reason. From Kant’s set of rules follows the need to place moral principles above selfish motives and thus create a society based on mutual respect and esteem as well as the dignity of each individual.

„Critique of practical reason“ (1788)⁶:

With this work, Kant deepened the foundation of his moral philosophy and his categorical imperative. He examined the foundations of morality and the ability of reason to determine the will independently of empirical influences. He argued that “pure practical reason” is capable of recognizing moral laws and guiding the will accordingly, whereby humans act autonomously and freely. He emphasized the importance of the “sense of duty” and “respect for the moral law” as central motives for action. Kant also examined a concept of the “highest good”, which is the union of virtue and happiness. He considered the assumption of “God” and the “immortality of the soul” as postulates of practical reason to be necessary in order to enable the achievement of this highest good.

„Critique of the power of judgment“ (1790)⁷:

This work served as a bridge between theoretical and practical philosophy and formed the conclusion of Kant’s three critiques. Through the analysis of judgment, Kant established a connection between the world of natural laws and the world of freedom and morality. He showed how human perception and judgment link the two realms.

Kant examined “aesthetic judgment”, in particular the “beautiful” and the “sublime”. He defines the beautiful as “practicality without purpose”, whereby aesthetic pleasure is without personal interest and universally comprehensible. He describes the sublime as a feeling that arises from the perception of overwhelming grandeur or power in nature.

In addition, he analyzed the “teleological power of judgment”, i.e. the assessment of natural phenomena according to expediency. Kant argued that in order to understand the complexity of nature, we often adopt an “as if” approach, in which we interpret natural phenomena as if they had a purpose, but without assuming an actual teleological cause.

What human impact did Kant create and why is this important for modern managers?

Kant formulated four central questions which, in his view, structure the whole of philosophy:

• „What can I know?“: This question is aimed at the limits and possibilities of human knowledge and forms the core of epistemology. Kant examined how knowledge arises and what prerequisites are necessary for this.
• „What should I do?“: Kant referred to “ethics” and the moral obligations of the individual. He explored which actions are morally required and which principles should guide our behavior.
• „What can I hope for?“: He focused on “metaphysics” and the expectations of human beings with regard to their existence, life after death and the possibility of a supreme good. Kant examined which hopes are rationally justified.
• „What is man?“: With this question, Kant turned to “anthropology” in order to fathom the essence of man, his nature and his position in the world. He analyzed what distinguishes humans as rational beings.

These four questions run through Kant’s entire work and provide a comprehensive framework for philosophical reflection on knowledge, morality, hope and human nature. With his endeavors to answer these questions, Kant revolutionized modern thinking. His epistemology continues to influence science and logic to this day. His categorical imperative serves as the basis for universal moral principles and inspired human rights and modern ethics. His philosophy shaped the idea of a peaceful world order through international cooperation and the rule of law and could hardly be more relevant today.

Managers should learn from Kant to make decisions according to rational criteria and ethical principles. His categorical imperative provides a model for responsible action and encourages managers to make decisions that are universally valid rather than merely serving short-term self-interest. With its emphasis on the autonomy and dignity of the individual and its postulate that people should never be treated merely as a means to an end, but should always be seen as an end in themselves, it provides clear guidelines for human interaction. These apply just as much to the private sphere as to business, organizations, and society as a whole.

In a globalized and crisis-ridden world, Kant’s philosophy remains a timeless compass for ethics, reason and responsibility. His four fundamental questions – “What can I know?”, “What should I do?”, “What can I hope for?” and “What is man?” – provide managers with a framework for integrating ethical considerations into their decision-making processes. Managers should be guided by these questions in their decisions and actions and never tire of looking for suitable answers.